True — in principle, if left alone and with nothing disrupting plant regeneration, the forest would recover naturally. But this has proven not to happen in Way Kambas. The evidence: cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica), which took hold after the 1997/1998 fires, still runs rampant there. Digitisation by Auriga Nusantara — then named Yayasan Silvagama — in 2013 counted an expanse of 40,780 hectares dominated by cogon grass in Way Kambas.

The cause is the fires that frequently sweep these grasslands. Every year there are fires — not once or twice, but dozens per year. And they often recur in the same places. As a result, woody vegetation cannot survive long enough to become trees.

That is why restoration programmes that ensure woody vegetation can grow into forest are badly needed in Way Kambas. The return of forest here is essential because key species — elephants, tigers, rhinos — need it as part of their habitat, including as a food source. In this way, restoration becomes a programme to expand wildlife habitat in Way Kambas.

All of today's cogon grasslands in Way Kambas were once dense wilderness forest. The damage began when logging concessions (HPH) were issued in the area, and mature trees were felled on a massive scale for commercial purposes. Then the great fires of 1997/1998 consumed all the woody vegetation, which was subsequently replaced by cogon grass. So, as its name suggests, this restoration aims to return the area to forest cover. Technically, that means replacing the grassland with forest cover as it once was.

However, the forest being formed must also become a safe and comfortable habitat for the wildlife species there, such as elephants, rhinos, tigers, tapirs and others. The restoration is therefore also directed at creating habitat for these animals — we call it the expansion of habitat for Way Kambas' key species. Accordingly, plant selection is tailored to the needs of these species, above all as a source of natural food.

At first, many questioned why Auriga chose Rawa Kadut as a restoration area. In their view, first, Rawa Kadut is very far from the park's outer boundary. Second, restoration activities in Way Kambas so far — by both the Way Kambas National Park Office and its partners — have tended to be along the outer boundary, since it is easier to reach.

But the goal of this restoration is not merely success at the restoration site itself. It must also be geared toward future expansion, so that all the cogon grass is replaced and the area returns to forest as it was decades ago, when it was a vast jungle. For this reason, Auriga Nusantara deliberately looked for an area in the middle of the grassland — a spot that would be relatively easy to manage, especially against fire. The site, for example, had to have adequate water reserves, a natural "wall" that fire cannot easily breach, and the possibility of building effective firebreaks.

Rawa Kadut met all these criteria. It has a small stream that flows year-round, drying up only occasionally during long droughts. It has a line of large trees that forms a natural wall holding back fire (from outside). The swamp channels and small streams almost encircle Rawa Kadut in a U-shape, so by building a firebreak connecting the heads of each swamp, the entire restoration area gains a "firewall". Rawa Kadut's distance from settlements is addressed by ensuring a work team is on site at all times. This whole area covers 102 hectares. After expansion, we named the entire restoration area Kadut Restoration, totalling 1,297 hectares, with the original site designated as Block 1.

The Kadut Restoration area is divided into 4 blocks. Block 1 has been under restoration since 2013, while Blocks 2–4 are expansion areas established through a cooperation agreement with the Way Kambas National Park Office signed in 2018.

Block 1 has now formed a young secondary forest. The planted trees have reached 10 metres in height, and their crowns have begun to touch, forming a canopy. As a result — because the canopy blocks the sunlight cogon grass needs — the forest floor has begun to change: once dominated by cogon grass, it is now dominated by woody shrubs.

Trees planted in Block 2 have begun to outgrow the cogon grass, reaching 3 metres in height. If this area can be kept free from fire for the next 5 years, it will metamorphose into a young secondary forest.

The cooperation agreement between Auriga Nusantara and the Way Kambas National Park Office expired in August 2023, and its extension is still being discussed by both parties. This has created uncertainty on the ground, leading Auriga Nusantara to significantly scale back its activities.

Meanwhile, from mid-2023, fires began to approach Way Kambas, intensifying from July. Under these conditions, fire spreading from various points outside Kadut Restoration eventually consumed 400 hectares in Blocks 3 and 4. This was a very costly lesson, and Auriga Nusantara decided to step up field activities again — above all, protecting plants from fire and preparing seedlings for replanting the burned areas.

Yes, there are many restoration activities in Way Kambas, carried out both directly by the Way Kambas National Park Office and by its partners. All of them deserve support, and each has its own distinctive features.

What sets Kadut Restoration apart includes:

First, a restoration intended as the first step in returning the whole cogon grassland to forest cover — the opening move of a grand design to reforest it. This is achieved by choosing a site roughly in the middle of the grassland and connected to existing forest cover in Way Kambas. A site that cuts through the grassland also indirectly restricts the movement of poachers and arsonists, since staff are present on site at all times.

Second, a much larger restoration area. Other restoration sites in Way Kambas tend to be smaller (none exceeds 200 hectares at a single location), whereas Kadut Restoration lies within one much larger contiguous area.

Third, much wider planting distance. Kadut Restoration uses 10 m × 10 m spacing, unlike other projects, which tend to use 3 m × 3 m. This wide spacing mimics the distance between trees in a tropical forest. At Kadut, every seedling planted is therefore treated as a permanent tree that must be ensured to grow into part of Kadut's forest cover.

Fourth, much wider firebreaks. Firebreaks at Kadut Restoration are 30 metres wide (compared with about 5 metres elsewhere). Such wide firebreaks prevent very tall flames from reaching the area across the break, or strong winds from carrying embers that "jump" over it.

Fifth, a work team on site at all times. This anticipates arsonists and allows a rapid response to any threat to the restoration area.

Yes. The main consideration is achieving the management goals of Way Kambas as a national park. The restoration plan is therefore always aligned with the management plan of Way Kambas National Park (TNWK), including its zoning.

The Kadut Restoration area lies within TNWK's rehabilitation zone, wilderness zone and core zone. Intensive planting is permitted in the rehabilitation zone, but not in the wilderness and core zones. Intensive planting is carried out in the parts of Kadut Restoration within the rehabilitation zone; enrichment planting is carried out in the parts within the wilderness zone; and in the parts within the core zone, activities focus on protecting natural regeneration.

The restoration design is set out in a site plan, summarised as follows:

• Block 1, 102 hectares, planted since 2013;
• Block 2, 434 hectares, planted since 2020;
• Block 3, 281 hectares, planted since 2022;
• Block 4, 234 hectares, planted since 2023.

(Along the outer boundary of the restoration area and of each block lie lines of large trees, small forest patches and small stream/swamp channels totalling 246 hectares, bringing Kadut Restoration to 1,297 hectares overall.)

By cover and planting area, the restoration area can be divided as follows:

Natural regeneration area: 385 hectares;

• Forested area: 176 hectares;
• Planting area: 696 hectares;
• Stream/swamp channels: 40 hectares.

All of this is shown in the following site plan: [site plan image]

It should be stressed from the outset that planting at Kadut Restoration is mainly an enrichment of the woody vegetation already present. This woody vegetation may be a small number of surviving large trees or saplings that grew naturally when restoration began. The existing large trees also serve as a source of saplings.

At least 20 woody species have been planted at Kadut Restoration so far: jambon (Eugenia spp.), tiga urat (Cinnamomum sp.), medang (Actinodaphne macropylla), bendo (Arthocarpus integra), merawan (Hovea sp.), puspa (Shima wallichii), ketapang (Terminalia catappa), manggisan (Garcinea sp.), laban (Vitex pusbescens), merbau (Intsia bijuga), sempu (Dillenia sp.), bungur (Lagerstroemia speciosa), sungkai (Peronema canescens), dluwak (Grewia acuminata), berasan (Memecylon edule), agarwood/gaharu (Aquilaria malaccensis), pulai (Alstonia scholaris), kopen (Plectoria didyma), salam (Syzygium polyanthum) and tarling.

There are three main considerations in choosing these species. First, they are native to Way Kambas. This matters because introducing non-native vegetation into a conservation area is prohibited, and native status is a valid indicator that a species can thrive there. Second, they are relatively fire-resistant. Given how fire-prone the area is, this improves the chance of planting success even if fire strikes. Third, they are food for, or needed by, key species — especially elephants.

Although the approach prioritises natural regeneration — so only areas relatively bare of woody vegetation are planted — the number of seedlings needed for the whole of Kadut Restoration is still considerable. A nursery was built to meet this need.

Nursery seedlings are sourced in several ways: (1) wildlings pulled from the Way Kambas forest, such as berasan, jambon, medang, puspa and salam; (2) sown from seed, such as laban, pulai, merawan and dluwak; (3) stem cuttings, such as bungur, sempu and sungkai; and (4) air layering, such as jambon and laban.

To collect seed, the trees often have to be climbed. When a tree is too large to climb, the team throws a rope over a fruiting branch and pulls or jerks it so the targeted fruit falls to the ground.

Planting is not done year-round, only during the rainy season, usually from November to March. In the early phase of restoration (2013–2016), the area around each planting hole was cleared within a 1–2 metre radius. However, these cleared patches, together with the fresh leaves of new plants, actually

"invited" deer to eat the foliage. As a result, the plants grew slowly or died. Having learned from this, clearing around planting sites was discontinued.

With a planting area of 696 hectares, Kadut Restoration has planted at least 69,600 seedlings. This figure excludes enrichment planting — replanting at points where seedlings died and sporadic planting in natural regeneration areas.

In the early years of restoration (2013–2016), the planting survival rate was 58%. Learning from the causes of mortality in that phase — mainly browsing by deer and seedlings that were too young — modifications were made in subsequent years. As a result, survival rates improved significantly: 78% for 2020 plantings, 91% for 2021 plantings and 87% for 2022 plantings.

Yes, every plant is monitored and cared for. Maintenance mainly ensures the area around each plant is not cleared too much, so it is not disturbed or eaten by deer. However, dead or dried cogon grass is still cleared, so that if a fire does occur it stays smaller or shorter and does not kill the plants.

When a dead plant is found, it is promptly replanted — a practice known as enrichment.

Geographically, Way Kambas' isolated location should make it very easy to protect. Almost half of its outer boundary faces the sea, and the rest does not overlap with settlements. There are no enclaves or community farmland inside Way Kambas. In reality, however, this conservation area is effectively open access, including its grasslands — as shown by the frequent discovery of wildlife poaching in Way Kambas.

Grassland fires in Way Kambas are almost certainly caused by people setting them. Cogon grass regenerates very easily and quickly: within days of burning, young shoots sprout. These young shoots are a favourite of wildlife, especially deer, and the cleared, burned land makes hunting easier. Or, if hunters wait longer, the deer "invite" predators such as tigers — meaning poachers can even target predators on burned land. Various informal sources also say fires make it easier to harvest wild honey.

Given this situation, we see what happens in Way Kambas not merely as wildfire, but more as arson.

Forest fires result from a combination of at least three main factors: (1) available fuel, (2) favourable climate, and (3) the presence of arsonists. A sea of cogon grass — especially given its density and rapid regeneration — provides a ready stockpile of fuel in Way Kambas. The grass's low water content further raises the risk of fire. Unsurprisingly, the grass in Way Kambas often burns even in wet months.

Rainfall and humidity in Way Kambas are relatively low, while temperatures are relatively high. Winds over the grassland can be strong, and on such open plains their direction is often unpredictable. These climatic conditions are conducive to fire. Meanwhile, almost any point along the outer boundary can serve as an entry point, making the area effectively open access and resulting in a high presence of arsonists in Way Kambas.

Climate is beyond Kadut Restoration's control, but arsonists and fuel are not. Arsonists are countered by keeping a work team on site at all times, so they cannot operate freely in the restoration area. Fuel loads are countered by building many firebreaks — along the outer boundary of the restoration area, along block boundaries and within blocks. Firebreaks inside the restoration area, including within blocks, reduce the size of fire compartments, so that if fire does get in, it is confined to that compartment. These firebreaks also double as management access routes, including for team mobility during firefighting.

The firebreak width at Kadut Restoration did not come out of nowhere. It followed a study of firebreaks at other restoration sites in Way Kambas, particularly how fire still managed to cross them. The existing fuel was then considered. Cogon grass, sometimes taller than an adult, naturally produces taller flames when it burns. In addition, the dense layer of dead grass on the "forest" floor was expected to prolong high temperatures during a fire, increasing the likelihood that all available fuel dries out (so fire spreads more easily).

Way Kambas is rich in biodiversity, including birds, so the many bird nests in the grassland were also taken into account. Nests often contain woody material, which turns into embers when burned (unlike cogon grass, which goes out very quickly once its solid material has burned). The flat, largely treeless terrain was also expected to produce strong winds during fires, so flames could be thrown or jump relatively far.

The 30-metre firebreak width was calculated as follows:

• Assume flames reach 5 metres high (twice the height of the grass); the flames can then still reach 5 metres across.
• Burning embers or wood, under "normal" fire conditions, are assumed to "fly" up to twice the flame length, or 10 metres.
• In strong winds, embers are assumed to "fly" up to 20 metres.

If embers "jump" 20 metres, firefighters still need room to put them out freely — so a 30-metre firebreak is taken as a safe distance to stop fire from spreading.